Literal When Possible: The Sermon’s Earliest Reception

In 1978, Robert M. Grant argued persuasively that the earliest Christians read the Sermon on the Mount as “literal when possible,” regarding them as commands to be obeyed. Grant’s excellent Semeia chapter, buried in an older volume, is a bit hard to find for the average reader. As we look at the reception history for the Sermon on the Mount, allow me to share some of his excellent research.

The First Century

James, brother of the Lord

According to Jesus, the wise man not only “hears” the teaching given in the sermon, but “does the will of my Father,” which includes “putting them into practice.” It is the foolish person who “hears these sayings of mine and does not put them into practice” (Mt 7:21-27 NIV; cf. Lk 6:47-49). Similarly, James commands that we “be doers of the word, and not hearers only, deceiving yourselves” (James 1:22 ESV). James then provides a two-part illustration: one of a person who is a hearer but not a doer, followed by one who is “no hearer who forgets but a doer who acts” (James 1:23-25 ESV), just as Christ provided a double illustration of the same.

James follows the Sermon by denouncing lust (James 1:14-15; Mt 5:28), anger (James 1:19-20; Mt 5:22), judgment (James 4:11; 5:9; Mt 7:1), adultery (James 2:11; Mt 5:27), and murder (James 2:11; Mt 5:21). Additionally, his warning against taking oaths seems to follow the sermon point by point (James 5:12; Mt 5:34-37). Each of these, like those mentioned in the Sermon on the Mount, flow from an abiding sense that the “doing” right involves keeping the whole law (James 2:9; Mt 5:18).

All of this suggests a deep relationship between faith and works—one should never be separated from the other (James 2:14-26; Mt 5:17-20; cf. Lk 6:46).

There also appears a similar treatment of riches and poverty—both physical and spiritual. James says “the poor in the world” have received the promise they are “heirs of the kingdom” (James 2:5), language found in Mt 5:3 & Lk 6:20. Weeping and wailing should characterize the rich, in light of the miseries that await them (James 5:1; Lk 6:24-25). Followers of Jesus should know that treasures on earth will corrode and corrupt (James 5:2; Mt 6:19-20), unlike treasures in heaven.

Grant summarizes his findings from the book of James:

“The social and eschatological attitudes found in James are thus close to those expressed in the Sermon, though they do not show that its author actually knew the Sermon as such. Presumably, however, he would have taken it literally had he encountered it.”[1]

The Apostle Paul

At mid-century, the church at Corinth suffered from an over-realized eschatology, which means they thought the promises of the future were now fully available in the present. The idea that God’s promises of future peace and reward were being made present in his Messiah and his Holy Spirit is orthodox—central to Paul’s eschatology. But the roots for this claim are found first in Isaiah, and then in the ministry of Jesus, where Christ himself declares the ‘now’ dimension of the in-breaking kingdom of God. Scholars have long recognized both the ‘now’ and ‘not yet’ dimension of the beatitudes (Mt 5:3-12). The ‘not yet’ dimension is reinforced by the moral teachings of the New Testament, including a call to holiness, without which “no one will see the Lord” (Heb 12:14).

In his first letter to the Corinthians, the Apostle Paul reveals that the Corinthian church considers itself to have “already” achieved eschatological riches, and they have already assumed their role as kings (1 Cor 4:8). The language here is reminiscent of a promise Jesus made to his apostles, where he will “confer a kingdom” so they may “sit on thrones” to judge Israel (Lk 22:29-30). However, they seem unaware of the moral teaching inherent in Christian doctrine. Paul reminds them of the ‘not yet’ component of these promises (1 Cor 4:5), and the fact that discipleship and kingdom life may include the kind of suffering, trials, and lack that comes from waiting for future fulfillment (1 Cor 4:9-13; cf. Lk 6:20-21, 25).

Didache

Before the first century came to a close, a document began circulating which gave instructions for church ordinances and the training of those interested in becoming Christians. This document, known as the Didache (or, “The Lord’s teaching through the Apostles to the Nations”) displays awareness of teaching coming from or reminiscent of the Sermon on the Mount.

Chapter 1 begins by declaring “the way of life” to involve following the two greatest commandments, as well as a negative version of the golden rule: “all things whatsoever you would should not occur to you, do not also do to another” (cf. Mt 7:12; Lk 6:31). As chapter 1 continues, the Didache shows more familiarity with the sermon:

Bless those who curse you, and pray for your enemies, and fast for those who persecute you. For what reward is there, if you love those who love you? Do not also the Gentiles do the same? But love those who hate you, and you shall not have an enemy (Did 1; cf. Mt 5:44-47; Lk 6:32, 35)

If someone gives you a blow upon your right cheek, turn to him the other also, and you shall be perfect. If someone impresses you for one mile, go with him two. If someone takes away your cloak, give him also your coat. If someone takes from you what is yours, ask it not back, for indeed you are not able. Give to every one that asks you, and ask it not back; for the Father wills that to all should be given of our own blessings (free gifts) (Did 1; cf. Mt 5:39-42, 48; Lk 6:27-31)

…he shall not escape thence until he pay back the last farthing (Did 1; cf. Mt 5:26; Lk 12:59)

But also now concerning this, it has been said, Let your alms sweat in your hands, until you know to whom you should give (Did 1; cf. Mt 5:23-24; 6:1-4)

“It is clear,” writes Grant, “that the Didachist is giving support for the observance of the sermon as law to be obeyed” or “commmandments” to be “observed.”[2]

Chapter 2 of the Didache forbids murder (Mt 5:21), adultery (Mt 5:27), and forswearing oneself (cf. Mt 5:34). But the heart leading to these things are also emphasized. Thus, in chapter 3, the Didache says “be not prone to anger, for anger leads the way to murder; neither jealous, nor quarrelsome, nor of hot temper; for our of all these murders are engendered” (cf. Mt. 5:21-22).

Chapter 6 of the Didache offers a glass of Matthew 5:48: “If you are able to bear all the yoke of the Lord, you will be perfect; but if you are not able, what you are able that do (Did 6:2).

Chapter 8 of the Didache reveals awareness of the sermon’s triad concerning giving, praying, and fasting (cf. Mt 6:1-18). “Do not let your fasts be with the hypocrites…Neither pray as the hypocrites” warns the Didache. Instead Christians should pray the “Our Father,” which the Didache faithfully records as follows:

[A]s the Lord commanded in His Gospel, thus pray: Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be Your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done, as in heaven, so on earth. Give us today our daily (needful) bread, and forgive us our debt as we also forgive our debtors. And bring us not into temptation, but deliver us from the evil one (or, evil); for Yours is the power and the glory forever (Did 8).

In excluding the unbaptized from taking the Eucharist, the Didache reasons from an obscure line in the sermon: “Give not that which is holy to the dogs” (Did 9:5; cf. Mt 7:6).

1-2 Clement

The writings of Clement suggest that sayings from the sermon were known in first-century Rome.

In his first book, Clement urges his readers to reflect on the teaching of Christ.

[R]emembering the words of the Lord Jesus which He spake, teaching forbearance (gentleness) and long-suffering (patience). For thus He spake: ‘Have mercy, that ye may receive mercy: forgive, that it may be forgiven to you. As ye do, so shall it be done to you. As ye give, so shall it be given unto you. As ye judge, so shall ye be judged. As ye show kindness, so shall kindness be showed unto you. With what measure ye mete, it shall be measured withal to you’ (1 Clem 13:1-2).

We learn that the words of Jesus are authoritative (“Remember the words of Jesus our Lord”—1 Clem 46:8), and meant to be obeyed: “With this commandment and these precepts,” Clement writes on the heels of quoting the sermon, “let us confirm ourselves, that we may walk in obedience to His hallowed words, with lowliness of mind” (1 Clem 13:3).

The call for obedience continues in 2 Clement: “This then is our reward, if verily we shall confess Him through whom we were saved. But wherein do we confess Him? When we do that which He saith and are not disobedient unto His commandments” (2 Clem 3:3-4). “For if we do the will of Christ, we shall find rest; but if otherwise, then nothing shall deliver us from eternal punishment, if we should disobey His commandments” (2 Clem 6:7). “We shall receive life eternal” only “if we shall have done the will of the Father” (2 Clem 8:4). On this theme, Clement seems to allude to and summarize sermon sayings of Jesus:

[F]or He saith, Not every one that saith unto Me, Lord, shall be saved, but he that doeth righteousness. So then, brethren, let us confess Him in our works, by loving one another, by not committing adultery nor speaking evil one against another nor envying, but being temperate, merciful, kindly. And we ought to have fellow-feeling one with another and not to be covetous. By these works let us confess Him, and not by the contrary (2 Clem 4:2-3; cf. Mt 7:21).

Clement speaks of the “beauty and greatness” of Jesus’ words in the sermon, which are words “God saith,” such as “It is no thank unto you, if ye love them that love you, but this is thank unto you, if ye love your enemies and them that hate you” (2 Clem 13:3-4; Cf Mt 5:44-47; Lk 6:32, 35). But the power in these words are lost when others fail to see them lived out by the believers who speak them (2 Clem 13:3-4).

Grant offers a general reflection on first-century use of the sermon:

The authors we have thus far considered have taken the Sermon or Sermon-like materials literally as commands to be obeyed. The only exception is provided by Paul’s opponents at Corinth, who read or heard selectively and liked promises better than performance.[3]

Second Century Apologists

Justin

When Justin penned his First Apology, he included Christ’s high standard of sexual fidelity, drawing resource from Jesus’ words in the sermon:

Concerning chastity, He uttered such sentiments as these: Whosoever looks upon a woman to lust after her, has committed adultery with her already in his heart before God. And, If your right eye offend you, cut it out; for it is better for you to enter into the kingdom of heaven with one eye, than, having two eyes, to be cast into everlasting fire. And, Whosoever shall marry her that is divorced from another husband, commits adultery…So that all who, by human law, are twice married, are in the eye of our Master sinners, and those who look upon a woman to lust after her. For not only he who in act commits adultery is rejected by Him, but also he who desires to commit adultery: since not only our works, but also our thoughts, are open before God. (First Apology 15)

He claims many witnesses could be summoned to prove that such strict teaching is being kept those committed to remaining pure.

Justin also references Christ’s teaching on love of enemies:

And of our love to all, He taught thus: If you love them that love you, what new thing are you doing? For even fornicators do this. But I say unto you, Pray for your enemies, and love them that hate you, and bless them that curse you, and pray for them that despitefully use you. (First Apology 15)

Justin then relates a litany of teachings found in Christ’s sermon:

And that we should communicate to the needy, and do nothing for glory, He said, Give to him that asks, and from him that would borrow turn not away; for if you lend to them of whom you hope to receive, what new thing are you doing? Even the publicans do this. Lay not up for yourselves treasure upon earth, where moth and rust does corrupt, and where robbers break through; but lay up for yourselves treasure in heaven, where neither moth nor rust does corrupt. For what is a man profited, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own soul? Or what shall a man give in exchange for it? Lay up treasure, therefore, in heaven, where neither moth nor rust does corrupt. And, Be kind and merciful, as your Father also is kind and merciful, and makes His sun to rise on sinners, and the righteous, and the wicked. Take no thought what you shall eat, or what you shall put on: are you not better than the birds and the beasts? And God feeds them. Take no thought, therefore, what you shall eat, or what you shall put on; for your heavenly Father knows that you have need of these things. But seek the kingdom of heaven, and all these things shall be added unto you. For where his treasure is, there also is the mind of a man. And, Do not these things to be seen of men; otherwise you have no reward from your Father which is in heaven (First Apology 15)

And concerning our being patient of injuries, and ready to serve all, and free from anger, this is what He said: To him that smites you on the one cheek, offer also the other; and him that takes away your cloak or coat, forbid not. And whosoever shall be angry, is in danger of the fire. And every one that compels you to go with him a mile, follow him two. And let your good works shine before men, that they, seeing them, may glorify your Father which is in heaven. For we ought not to strive; neither has He desired us to be imitators of wicked men, but He has exhorted us to lead all men, by patience and gentleness, from shame and the love of evil… (First Apology 16)

And with regard to our not swearing at all, and always speaking the truth, He enjoined as follows: Swear not at all; but let your yea be yea, and your nay, nay; for whatsoever is more than these comes of evil…And let those who are not found living as He taught, be understood to be no Christians, even though they profess with the lip the precepts of Christ; for not those who make profession, but those who do the works, shall be saved, according to His word: Not every one who says to Me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven, but he that does the will of My Father which is in heaven. For whosoever hears Me, and does My sayings, hears Him that sent Me. And many will say unto Me, Lord, Lord, have we not eaten and drunk in Your name, and done wonders? And then will I say unto them, Depart from Me, you workers of iniquity. Then shall there be wailing and gnashing of teeth, when the righteous shall shine as the sun, and the wicked are sent into everlasting fire. For many shall come in My name, clothed outwardly in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly being ravening wolves. By their works you shall know them. And every tree that brings not forth good fruit, is hewn down and cast into the fire (First Apology 16)

Justin offers more evidence that such commands are being obeyed in the church of his day, and concludes with a warning: “[A]s to those who are not living pursuant to these His teachings, and are Christians only in name, we demand that all such be punished by you” (First Apology 16).

Theophilus

Theophilus of Antioch also references the sermon in speaking of chastity as well as love of enemies:

And concerning chastity, the holy word teaches us not only not to sin in act, but not even in thought, not even in the heart to think of any evil, nor look on another man’s wife with our eyes to lust after her… And the voice of the Gospel teaches still more urgently concerning chastity, saying: “Whosoever looketh on a woman who is not his own wife, to lust after her, hath committed adultery with her already in his heart.” “And he that marrieth,” says [the Gospel], “her that is divorced from her husband, committeth adultery; and whosoever putteth away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery.” (To Autolycus 3:13)

And that we should be kindly disposed, not only towards those of our own stock, as some suppose… the Gospel says: “Love your enemies, and pray for them that despitefully use you. For if ye love them who love you, what reward have ye? This do also the robbers and the publicans.” And those that do good it teaches not to boast, lest they become men-pleasers. For it says: “Let not your left hand know what your right hand doeth.” (To Autolycus 3:14)

The earliest Christians read the Sermon on the Mount as literal when possible, regarding them as commands to be obeyed. tell the world

Athenagoras

Near the close of the second century, Athenagoras offered A Plea for the Christians, addressed to the emperor, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Christians are not a threat to the state, writes Athenagoras, but peace-loving people:

[F]or we have learned, not only not to return blow for blow, nor to go to law with those who plunder and rob us, but to those who smite us on one side of the face to offer the other side also, and to those who take away our coat to give likewise our cloak. (A Plea for the Christians 1)

The “opinions…to which we adhere,” writes Athenagoras, are “not human but uttered and taught by God.” And what are these teachings “in which we are brought up?”

I say unto you, Love your enemies; bless them that curse you; pray for them that persecute you; that you may be the sons of your Father who is in heaven, who causes His sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the just and the unjust… [W]ho promise their disciples by these and such like instructions to make them happy: who of them have so purged their souls as, instead of hating their enemies, to love them; and, instead of speaking ill of those who have reviled them (to abstain from which is of itself an evidence of no mean forbearance), to bless them; and to pray for those who plot against their lives? … [A]mong us you will find…persons…who…by their deeds exhibit the benefit arising from their persuasion of its truth: they do not rehearse speeches, but exhibit good works; when struck, they do not strike again; when robbed, they do not go to law; they give to those that ask of them, and love their neighbours as themselves. (A Plea for the Christians 11).

The only real difference between Athenagoras and others mentioned in this post is that he recognizes the summons to live passively in concert with teachings from the Sermon on the Mount requires a social setting that would let Christians live in order to practice them. Thus Athenagoras’ plea is not for Christians to die in gratitude for suffering shame for the name of Christ, but for the empire to let Christians live:

[I]t remains for you to make inquiry concerning our life, our opinions, our loyalty and obedience to you and your house and government, and thus at length to grant to us the same rights (we ask nothing more) as to those who persecute us… that we may cease at length to be slaughtered at the instigation of false accusers. (A Plea for the Christians 3 & 1)

“[H]e is one of the first Christians after Paul to realize that Christian morality is not simply a matter of observing timeless commandments apart from any particular environment,” writes Grant; however, “the insight of Athenagoras about the setting for perfection” is “left undeveloped,” and “was, like his treatise, almost entirely neglected by later Christians.”[4]

Grant then offers a summary reflection of what can be gleaned from second century reception history of the sermon among the apologists: “We see, then, that for the apologists, as for almost every Christian we have mentioned thus far, the Sermon on the Mount was taken as a literal call for perfection.”[5]

The Third Century: Origen

The name of Origen is often thought to be synonymous with allegorizing; but when it comes to the Sermon on the Mount, Origen appears to predominately follow the same ‘literal’ reading tradition that came before him. Perhaps the best phrase to describe Origen’s approach to the sermon is this: “literal when possible.” In his work, On First Principles, Origen offers an example of an “impossible” case:

And now, if we institute a similar examination with regard to the Gospels, how shall it appear other­wise than absurd to take the injunction literally,… that when one is smitten on the right cheek, he is ordered to present the left also, since everyone who strikes with the right hand smites the left cheek? This precept also in the Gospels must be accounted among impossibilities, viz., that if the right eye of­fend you, it is to be plucked out; for even if we were to suppose that bodily eyes were spoken of, how shall it appear appropriate, that when both eyes have the property of sight, the responsibility of the offense should be transferred to one eye, and that the right one? Or who shall be considered free of a crime of the greatest enormity, that lays hands upon himself? (On First Principles 18)[6]

Origen acknowledges that “the sacred Scriptures” offer rich resources, but must be interpreted in ways that uncover “their inner meaning,” beyond “the letter alone” in cases where “absurdities” and “impossibilities would be the result” (On First Principles 18).

But even Origen recognizes that “the letter” is the place to start, and that in many cases a literal reading is to be preferred:

Let no one, however, entertain the suspicion that we…believe…no precepts of the law are to be taken literally, because we consider certain of them, in which either the nature or possi­bility of the case so requires, incapable of being ob­served…or that His commandments are not to be literally obeyed. We have therefore to state in answer, since we are manifestly so of opinion, that the truth of the history may and ought to be preserved in the majority of instances….For the passages which hold good in their historical acceptation are much more numerous than those which contain a purely spiritual meaning (On First Principles 19).

He lists several of the 10 commandments, asking “who would not maintain” that each command or prohibition is “sufficient in itself without any spiritual meaning, and necessary for those who observe it?” (On First Principles 19). He finds similar literal prohibitions in the Sermon on the Mount:

And with respect to the precepts enjoined in the Gospels, no doubt can be entertained that very many of these are to be literally observed, as, e.g., when our Lord says, But I say unto you, Swear not at all; and when He says, Whosoever looks upon a woman to lust after her, has com­mitted adultery with her already in his heart… (On First Principles 19).

In his Commentary on Matthew, Origen also shows signs of interpreting prohibitions against lust and anger literally (XIII.16). When Eusebius described Origen’s ascetic life, he suggested Origen accepted even more literal readings from the Savior’s sermon and applied them to himself:

He considered that one must keep those gospel sayings of the Savior which commend not having two coats or wearing shoes and not to spend one’s time in thoughts about the future… [He] “is said to have walked for many years without wearing footgear of any kind, and to have abstained for many years from the use of wine and all but necessary food” (Church History 6.3.10-12; cf. Mt 6:31-34).

It is clear that Origen did not apply a wholesale allegorical reading to the Savior’s sermon; if he had, he would not have concluded by urging “great pains and labour” be employed to know when to deviate from a literal reading, since the reader “is dealing with divine and not human words inserted in the sacred books.” (On First Principles 19).

“All one can say,” writes Grant, “is that generally Origen shared the early Christian view that gospel commands should be taken literally when possible.”[7]

 

[1] Robert M. Grant, “The Sermon on the Mount in Early Christianity,” in Semeia 12: The Poetics of Faith: Essays Offered to Amos Niven Wilder, Part I: Rhetoric, Eschatology,and Ethics in the New Testament, ed. William A. Beardslee (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1978), p. 216.

[2] Grant, pp. 217 & 218.

[3] Grant, p. 219.

[4] Grant, pp. 227 & 229.

[5] Grant, p. 226.

[6] Even here, writes Grant, “Origen is not really allegorizing at all. Instead, he temporarily literalizes, taking language apparently figurative or hyperbolic and pushing prosaic or even pedantic exegesis to the limit of absurdity.” See Grant, pp. 227-228.

[7] Grant, p. 228.

 

EARLIER POSTS IN THIS SERIES
The Complete Art of Happiness: Sermon On The Mount Intro–Part 1
Life with a Capital ‘L’: Sermon On The Mount Intro–Part 2
New Things To Love: Sermon On The Mount Intro–Part 3
A Change of Desire: Sermon On The Mount Intro–Part 4
The Cost of Apprenticeship: Sermon On The Mount Intro–Part 5
Calling All Neurotics: Sermon On The Mount Intro–Part 6
Conversation Partners For Reading The Sermon
The Devil’s Masterpiece: Sermon On The Mount Background–Part 1

THE NEXT POST IN THIS SERIES
Not Problematic…Paradigmatic: Later Patristic Readings: Background–Part 3

 

photo credit: Ghirlandaio, Jesus Commissioning the Twelve Apostles (1481)